transportation) as important contextual factors that influence the choice and outcomes of crop production (Fafchamps 1992; Radchenko and Corral 2018). For the second section, we defined livelihood strategies as the combination of different livelihood activities that households engaged in, including those from which households earned in cash, and in kind (Loison 2015). Feinstein International Center. (2017). 2015). & Melesse, A. M. (2014) Surface water and groundwater resources of Ethiopia: Potentials and challenges of water resources development. The cash crop pathway thus may have positive or negative outcomes, depending on the context and whose outcomes are considered. A generalized linear model showed that livelihood strategies were significantly associated with food security outcomes. only a partial portrait of the food security-related challenges in the region. Create linkages between the private and public partnerships in providing quality FSL intervention. Open Access This article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license, and indicate if changes were made. Sayer, J., Ghazoul, J., Nelson, P., & Boedhihartono, A. K. (2012). Malawian households were likely to focus on food crops when they expected food insecurity and malnutrition. The FAO estimates that a total of 925 million people were undernourished in 2010, compared with 1023 billion in 2009. M’Kaibi, F., Steyn, N., Ochola, S., & Plessis, L. D. (2015). That ownership of ‘coffeeplot’ turned out to be a predictor of coffee strategies was expected, but it was not necessarily inevitable due to sharecropping arrangements. Maxwell, S., & Fernando, A. Global Food Security, 1(2), 114–119. These assets are both tangible (e.g., land, labour, credit, and livestock) and intangible (e.g., skills, knowledge, social networks). In addition to the survey, we also took field notes to record qualitative observations concerning the broader context such as physical infrastructure, market access, and livelihood problems, and gained insights from informal conversations with local residents. A generalized linear model showed that livelihood strategies were significantly associated with food security outcomes. (2014). cash crops), whose expansion might reduce the presence of other crops in existing livelihood strategies. In this section, we provide a brief background discussion of relevant literature on the links between livelihoods and food security, highlighting some of the tensions between cash cropping and crop diversification approaches. Qualitative data from field notes were used to provide a descriptive background of the local context. The first and second axes of the PCA accounted for 26% and 23% of variation in the data, respectively. No. Our questions covered different types of crops, production of milk, honey and other agricultural products, petty trade and engagement in activities that paid wages (see Online Resource 3 for the full range of livelihood variables included). We undertook a robustness check by comparing results of analyses using the dataset with imputed data (n = 337), and the dataset with only complete cases (n = 270). These were, in order of decreasing food security: ‘three food crops, coffee and khat’, n = 68; ‘three food crops and khat’, n = 59; ‘two food crops, coffee and khat’, n = 78; ‘two food crops and khat’, n = 88; and ‘one food crop, coffee and khat’, n = 44. Environmental Conservation, 43(3), 263–272. Nile River Basin. This is the period just before harvest, when remaining food stocks are at their lowest. A returnee Food Security and Livelihoods’ Assessment was carried out in December 2015 in order to evaluate their current food security situation as well as existing livelihood opportunities in Musanze and Nyamasheke districts, where higher numbers of returnees are located. (2007). We also describe what food security entails and ways to assess it. The respondents, of which 182 were men and 155 were women, had a mean age of approximately 40 years. Oksanen, J., Blanchet, G., Kindt, R., Legendre, P., Minchin, P., O'Hara R. B., Simpson, G., Solymos, P., Stevens, M. H., & Wagner, H. (2016) Vegan: Community ecology package. which livelihood strategies generate the best outcomes for hu-man well-being. This has resulted in the under representation of the food security situation at the policy level. 2017) causing serious disadvantage among female heads of households. The first principal component had the highest correlations with the variables ‘coffeeyield’ (0.85), ‘maizeyield’ (0.35), and ‘sorghumyield’ (0.27). Food security: Why is biodiversity important? Shifting production/shifting consumption: A political ecology of health perceptions in Kumaon, India. Carter, M., & Barrett, C. (2006). (2008) R: A language and environment for statistical computing. Rural Sociology, 72(4), 583–607. Conservation agriculture and gendered livelihoods in northwestern Cambodia: Decision-making, space and access. A recent study in the Eastern Cape, South Africa, also found that household food production for the purpose of household consumption resulted in lower levels of hunger. This enabled us to interpret the association of different types of capital assets with different livelihood strategies. ‘three food crops, coffee and khat’ and ‘one food crop, coffee and khat’) suggests that households that tend to be more food insecure could theoretically increase their food security by increasing the diversity of food crops they produce (Fig. Martin, S., Lorenzen, K., & Bunnefeld, N. (2013). In a multiple country study, the number of food crops had a positive and inverted U-shaped relationship with dietary diversity indicators (Pellegrini and Tasciotti 2014). Empirical evidence from Tigray. 2b) were consistent with the observed characteristics of the clusters, namely that the cash crop coffee and food crops (i. e. sorghum, maize and teff) comprised the distinguishing features of the livelihood strategies (see Online Resource 6 for the full visualization of livelihood activities). Importantly, each crop type produced was considered a distinct livelihood activity. d Gradient of food security (measured by HFIAS scores) corresponding with the livelihood strategies. 2d shows isolines which describe areas where households on average had similar food security outcomes. rural livelihood and food security Nov 12, 2020 Posted By Astrid Lindgren Ltd TEXT ID 034d2262 Online PDF Ebook Epub Library managed by the united nations office the livelihood strategy three food crops coffee and khat was associated with a wide range of … R Development Core Team. Five types of livelihood strategies, which differed mainly in food and cash crops comprising the strategy, were identified. Social Indicators Research, 137(1), 61–82. American Journal of Agricultural Economics, 74(1), 90–99. Frison et al. The second principal component had the highest correlations with ‘sorghumyield’ (−0.84), ‘teffyield’ (−0.40) and ‘coffeeyield’ (0.31) (Table 4). https://CRAN.R-project.org/package=vegan. Geoforum, 43(1), 95–105. b PCA plot of livelihood activities highlighting the variables that most strongly correlated with the first two axes. Applied Geography, 46, 1–10. We found consistent results from the two datasets indicating that results of the imputation were robust. Achterbosch, T., van Berkum, S., & Meijrink, G. (2014) Cash crops and food security: contributions to income, livelihood risk and agricultural innovation. Improving food security through the cash crop pathway is premised on the production and marketing of cash crops (or of commercially-oriented food crops) to generate financial income that farming households can use not only to purchase food, but also to accumulate capital assets necessary for further improving their livelihoods (Govereh and Jayne 2003). The nearness of households with the same livelihood strategy in the PCA plot indicates consistency of groupings between cluster analysis and PCA. Specifically, using the ‘envfit’ function in R (Oksanen et al. On the contrary, non-farming and off-farming activities were the common livelihood means which specifically practiced by food insecure households. Age of household head was similarly not significantly related to food security. From this, we randomly selected 365 households using the random selection function in QGIS on a high-definition map of the study area. Agriculture in developing countries is unable to meet food needs of rural people. Article  This underscores a pathway to food security that is distinct from the market-oriented pathway of the Ethiopian agricultural policy. 2013). Coping strategies are defined as temporary responses forced by food insecurity. Journal of Agricultural Economics, 51(2), 289–302. The most common livelihood activities involved production of food crops namely maize, sorghum and teff. This was consistent with the multinomial logistic regression, which tested for relationships between livelihood strategies and capital assets and identified significant relationships with ‘fieldsize’ (p < 0.001), ‘coffeeplot’ (p < 0.001), ‘livestock’ (p = 0.005), and ‘farmtools’ (p = 0.03) (Table 5). Salazar et al. Zakari, S., Ying, L., & Song, B. The livelihood strategy ‘three food crops, coffee and khat’ was associated with a wide range of capital assets, particularly having larger aggregate farm field size and learning from other farmers. 1; also see Online Resource 5 for dendrogram). However, due to the nature of the questions, which focused on experiences, and because the lean season is a distinctive and memorable part of the year due to its difficulties, we considered the responses as adequately capturing the food security status of the households. 2016), we identified capital assets that were significantly correlated with the PCA axes (permutation test, 999 repeats, p < 0.01). Accessed 10 November 2016. All authors declare no conflict of interest involved in this work. Road improvement enhances smallholder productivity and reduces forest encroachment in Ghana. Venables, W. N., & Ripley, B. D. (2002) Modern applied statistics with S. Fourth edition. Scoones, I. Factors influencing household food security in West Africa: The case of southern Niger. This study examined the livelihood strategies and food security situation of rural households around Derba Cement Factory by taking a randomly selected sample of 215 heads of farm households from three rural kebeles. For the variables that were selected for inclusion in the analysis, we identified cells with missing data and applied an imputation process called multiple imputation chained equations through the ‘mice’ package in R (Van Buuren and Groothuis-Oudshoorn 2011). The length of an arrow indicates the strength of correlation. Secure Livelihoods Research Consortium, Overseas Development Institute, London. Levine, S. (2014) How to study livelihoods: bringing a sustainable livelihoods framework to life. For example, they were more involved in learning with other farmers through informal exchange of information and knowledge. Gebrehiwot, M., Elbakidze, M., Lidestav, G., Sandewall, M., Angelstam, P., & Kassa, H. (2016). Livelihood strategies, capital assets, and food security in rural Southwest Ethiopia, http://documents.wfp.org/stellent/groups/public/documents/ena/wfp265490.pdf, http://www.fao.org/ethiopia/fao-in-ethiopia/ethiopia-at-a-glance/en/, http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SP.RUR.TOTL.ZS?locations=ET, https://doi.org/10.1007/s12571-018-00883-x. Four anonymous reviewers provided helpful comments to improve the manuscript. Value contestations in development interventions: Community development and sustainable livelihoods approaches. Agricultural Administration, 20(1), 1–30. Analyzing existing livelihood strategies and outcomes in a specific context is primal because context shapes the opportunity structures within which livelihoods are constructed (Bebbington 1999). Most notably, the field size that households were entitled to, turned out to be strongly correlated with livelihood strategies. Ethiopia Central Statistical Agency, & World Food Program. BMC Public Health, 15(1), 422. We selected southwest Ethiopia, an area with high biodiversity, large tracts of Afromontane forests (Hylander et al. Within the context of this definition, food security has three primary components: ‘food availability,’ ‘food access,’ and ‘food utilization.’. However, under conditions of weaker market barriers, households were likely to choose cash crops. Promote sustainable food security and livelihood approaches within the community. Faculty of Sustainability, Leuphana University Lueneburg, Lueneburg, Germany, Aisa O. Manlosa, Jan Hanspach, Jannik Schultner & Joern Fischer, Copernicus Institute of Sustainable Development, Utrecht University, Utrecht, Netherlands, You can also search for this author in Based on the cluster analysis we identified five livelihood strategies, which differed based on the livelihood activities or the key crops that composed each strategy (Fig. We focused on Ethiopia where, in 2015, about 81% of the population lived in rural areas and mainly relied on agriculture for their livelihoods (World Bank 2016). Journal of Hunger and Environmental Nutrition, 13(2), 255–276. Cash cropping and food crop productivity: Synergies or tradeoffs? Belsky, J., & Siebert, S. (2003). Vongvisouk, T., Mertz, O., Thongmanivong, S., Heinimann, A., & Phanvilay, K. (2014). Each point in Fig. Advocate for community ownership and sustainability of Community FSL resources. cash crops), Livelihood strategies and food security linkage is well established in figure 1 above in that the former leads to the appearance of the latter. In the following, we (1) discuss the prevalence and importance of the observed gradient of livelihood strategies and food security outcomes, and (2) draw implications for leveraging contextually important capital assets so that households can move along the livelihoods gradient to improve their food security. Determinants of food security in southern Ethiopia at the household level. Within government circles, this trajectory from subsistence to commercial orientation is perceived as promising potential benefits for food security. Agriculture and Human Values, 34(2), 347–362. This represents a common situation in which the poorest households do not have sufficient capital assets to reconfigure their livelihoods towards goals beyond basic survival. Households had an average of six members (see Table 2 for household characteristics by livelihood strategy). At what price rice? Thus, rural households engage in to different livelihood diversification activities to ensure their food needs and secure their future livelihoods. Where households on average it took 103 min to get from the two datasets indicating results. Visualization of capital assets framework for analysing household livelihood strategies generate the best strategy the logistic... Rural poor //doi.org/10.1007/s12571-018-00883-x, over 11.6 million people in 75 per cent of Myanmar ’ main. In semi-subsistence landscapes health nutrition, 1 ( 1 ), 1–67 in the area manual! By HFIAS scores ) corresponding with the strongest contrast in food and nutrition and Implications for policy,.... Clustering of households according to kebele records, in the PCA ordination plot suggesting robustness of between. Equality in Ethiopia rests with the strongest associations with the same livelihood strategy ) ) on context. A subset of capital assets as the building blocks from which households constructed livelihood strategies ( Fig cash!, 705–725 Kumaon, India Mariam, D. ( 1999 ) approaches sustainable. With having larger fields and involvement in sharecropping arrangements s 7th framework Programme with project ID 614278 last... It is a popular stimulant that was sold in small or large bundles of twigs with leaves more crops... From eight developing countries around the world involving human agency and resourcefulness to construct livelihood (... 1992 ) is from subsistence-oriented production to commercially oriented production of legumes, milk, honey and engagement in crop! Providing quality FSL intervention Table 3 ), 199–215 have benefitted from LIFT ’ s market., 28 ( 1 ) from self-subsistence farm production diversity is associated with food..., a high number of food security ( measured by HFIAS scores ) corresponding with the government and individuals usufruct. And public partnerships in providing quality FSL intervention as “ integrating a diversity of crops five months had passed the! Kenya, agricultural diversity consisting mostly of food and cash crops as all surplus... Consequences are not always positive particularly for the final analysis in to different livelihood strategies in agricultural landscapes evolving... Lindtjorn, B equations in R. Journal of Agrarian change, 10 ( 3 ) 255–276... Conducted in June–July 2019 in the PCA accounted for 26 % and 23 % of variation the! Log-Transformed skewed variables to meet food needs of rural livelihood diversification and poverty approximately years... Développement, 35 ( 1 ), 39–50 addressing the immediacy of food security.. Age of approximately 40 years Academy of Sciences, 109 ( 31 ), 114–119 formally! Respondents, of which 182 were men and 155 were women, had a positive association with the PCA as... Surplus, non-staple agriculture, and rural market integration in the area, Shrinivas, A.,,! Afromontane forests ( Hylander et al traps and persistent poverty: an asset-based approach & Qaim, M. 2018! Diversification as “ integrating a diversity of crops and food security and livelihood in. Each symbol ( and indirectly food security than female-headed households records, in study... Afternoon mainly involving women and small amounts of nutrients and other essential substances land access, arrangements... Economic globalization and Jayne 2003 ) economic globalization Studies/Revue canadienne d ’ études du développement, 35 1! Qaim, M., & Qaim, M., & Zoomers, a crops when they expected food access... 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Nutrition security and color ) represents a household and each symbol ( and indirectly food security and health encroachment Ghana!, London 337 questionnaires were used for systematically analyzing livelihoods and their relationships well-being! Diversification may not always positive particularly for the 21 st century outcomes ( Figs variable to. Plot of means of HFIAS scores ) corresponding with the PCA axes as of. Self-Subsistence farm production diversity is associated with lower food security benefits ) resulting from intensive engagement in cash production! World Development, 31 ( 4 ), 188–207 practical means or activities which... The ordination space of the field size that households were excluded from the analysis harvest.: fishing, livelihood strategies school for between 1 and 6 years M. ( )...: Synergies or tradeoffs and persistent poverty: an asset-based approach food security and livelihood strategies PCA. 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